Democracy

The UK’s mixed experience with referendums reflects the variety of situations in which they are applied – with far-reaching consequences.

The national debates that accompany referendums in Malta are strongly shaped by the country’s enduring bipartisan political landscape.

Switzerland is often hailed as a model of direct democracy. But these processes may prove difficult to replicate elsewhere for many reasons.

Referendums in Romania have been instrumentalised by various political actors as strategies to increase legitimacy and popularity.

Designed to safeguard against a return of authoritarianism, the Italian constitutional framework leaves little space for direct democracy – yet referendums are not uncommon in the country.

Ireland’s model of amending the constitution through a national debate among the people provides an important route to progress

The Hungarian government’s use of referendums shows how direct democracy can be used to lend a veneer of legitimacy to a party’s own policy agenda.

Rather than judging referendums as positive or negative, we should examine their distinctive political features and contexts.

If democracy stays cast in its national mould, the path ahead may be one of exclusion and disenfranchisement.

It is time to let go of the assumption that democracy always leads to progressive outcomes.